The Temper of the 18th Century and Its Impact on the English Language
The 18th century was a period of great changes and developments in England and in the English language. It was influenced by the classical ideals of order, uniformity, and rationality, as well as by the social, political, and cultural events that shaped the nation. In this text, we will examine the main features and characteristics of the 18th century and its impact on the English language, especially on its regulation, refinement, and fixation.
The Temper of 18th Century
The 18th century is often called the Augustan age, after the Roman emperor Augustus, who was known for his patronage of arts and literature. The English writers and thinkers of this period admired the classical works of Latin and Greek authors and tried to imitate their style and form. They also valued reason, logic, and clarity over emotion, imagination, and ambiguity.
The 18th century was also characterized by a search for stability and order in all aspects of life. The English people had experienced many upheavals and conflicts in the previous century, such as the Civil War, the Restoration, the Glorious Revolution, the Jacobite rebellions, etc. They wanted to establish a stable government, a peaceful society, and a harmonious culture.
One of the areas that reflected this desire for order and stability was the English language. The English language had undergone many changes and variations over time, due to various historical influences, such as the Roman Christianization, the Scandinavian invasions, the Norman Conquest etc. It had also been enriched by many borrowings from other languages, such as Latin, French, Italian etc. However, by the 18th century, many people felt that the English language was too irregular, inconsistent and corrupt. They wanted to fix, refine and ascertain it, that is, to settle its rules, to remove its defects and to make it certain and free from doubt.
Reflection on the Attitude toward Language
The attitude towards language in the 18th century was mainly prescriptive and normative. That is, it focused on prescribing rules and norms for how language should be used correctly, rather than describing how language was actually used in practice. This attitude was influenced by several factors, such as:
- The Classical influence: The 18th-century writers and thinkers looked up to Latin as a model of perfection and elegance. They believed that Latin had fixed rules and standards that could be applied to English as well. They also admired the classical genres of poetry, drama, and rhetoric, and tried to follow their conventions and principles.
- Scientific rationalism: The 18th century was also known as the Age of Enlightenment or the Age of Reason. It was marked by a spirit of inquiry, experimentation, and discovery in various fields of knowledge, such as philosophy, science, mathematics, etc. The scientific method was based on observation, analysis, and evidence. This method also influenced the study of language, which became more systematic, logical, and empirical.
- The social aspiration: The 18th century saw the rise of a new social class: the middle class. The middle class consisted of merchants, traders, professionals, etc., who had gained wealth and power through commerce and industry. They wanted to improve their social status and prestige by adopting the manners and speech of the upper class or the aristocracy. They also wanted to distinguish themselves from the lower class or the common people, who were seen as vulgar and ignorant. Therefore, they sought to learn and use a standard form of English that was polite, refined, and correct.
Characteristics of 18th Century English Language
The 18th century’s attempts to regulate and improve the English language resulted in several characteristics that marked this period. Some of these characteristics are:
Ascertainment: This term means a settled rule or an established standard. It was used by Swift in his proposal for correcting, improving, and ascertaining the English tongue in 1712. He suggested that a group of learned and polite persons should assemble and fix on rules by which they design to proceed in reforming the language. He also appealed to the Earl of Oxford, the first minister, to support his proposal.
Refinement: This term means removing supposed defects and introducing certain improvements in the language. Some of the defects that were identified and criticized by various writers and critics were:
- The clipping or shortening of words that should have retained their full polysyllabic dignity. For example, mob instead of mobile, rep instead of reputation, incog instead of incognito etc.
- The contraction or elision of verbs that ended with -ed. For example, drudg’d instead of drudged, disturb’d instead of disturbed, rebuk’d instead of rebuked etc.
- The use of fashionable or trendy words that had no real meaning or substance. For example, banter, bamboozle, mob, sham etc.
Fixation: This term means making the language permanent and unchangeable in the desired form. Some of the means that were used or proposed to achieve this goal were:
- The dictionary: A dictionary is a book that records the proper use of words and their meanings, spellings, pronunciations, etc. The first comprehensive and authoritative dictionary of English was compiled by Samuel Johnson in 1755. It took him nine years to complete it. It contained about 40,000 entries and 114,000 quotations from various sources. It was widely used and respected as a standard reference for the English language.
- Grammar: Grammar is a book that sets out the rules and principles of the structure and usage of the language. The first systematic and prescriptive grammar of English was written by Robert Lowth in 1762. It was titled A Short Introduction to English Grammar. It was based on the analogy of Latin grammar and aimed to correct the common errors and irregularities of English speakers and writers.
- The Academy: An academy is an institution or a society that oversees and regulates the language. It was inspired by the examples of Italy and France, where academies were established to preserve and improve their languages. In Italy, the most famous academy was the Accademia della Crusca, founded in 1582. In France, the most famous academy was the French Academy, founded in 1635 by Cardinal Richelieu. Swift’s proposal for an academy in England was the closest attempt to create such an institution, but it was never realized.
The Views and Criticisms of Dean Swift
Dean Swift was one of the most influential and prominent figures in the 18th century’s attempts to regulate and improve the English language. He was a writer, a satirist, a politician and a clergyman. He was also a conservative, who cherished the principle of authority in church and state, and deplored the skeptical spirit of inquiry proposed by the Royal Society. He also upheld the classics, but understood the merits of a plain English style, as long as it was not polluted by crude and careless usages.
Swift wrote a letter in 1712 to the earl of Oxford, the first minister of England, titled A Proposal for Correcting, Improving and Ascertaining the English Tongue. In this letter, he complained about the problems and defects of the English language, such as:
- The absence of a prosody, a dictionary or a grammar that could provide rules and standards for correct usage.
- The daily corruption and deterioration of the language by ignorant or careless speakers and writers.
- The pretenders to polish and refine the language who had multiplied abuses and absurdities.
- The ambiguous constructions that offended against every part of grammar.
The remedy he proposed was an academy, though he did not call it by that name. He suggested that a free judicious choice should be made of such persons as are generally allowed to be best qualified for such a work. These persons should assemble at some appointed time and place and fix on rules by which they design to proceed in reforming the language. He also appealed to the earl to take some action by saying that if genius and learning be not encouraged under his administration, then he is the most inexcusable person alive.
Swift’s proposal was supported by some writers and thinkers who agreed with his views and goals. For example, Addison, who wrote in a paper in The Spectator that there were ambiguous constructions in English that will never be decided till we have something like an academy that by the best authorities and rules drawn from the analogy of languages shall settle all controversies between grammar and idiom.
However, Swift’s proposal was also opposed by some writers and critics who disagreed with his views and goals. For example, Oldmixon, who in the same year that Swift’s proposal appeared, published Reflections on Dr. Swift’s Letter to the Earl of Oxford about the English Tongue. In this book, he protested against everything is done or to be done by Swift or in his name. He attacked Swift personally by quoting passages from his satirical work The Tale of a Tub as an example of vulgar English. He also ridiculed the idea that anything can be done to prevent languages from changing.
Swift’s proposal was never realized or implemented. It was the nearest England has ever come to having an academy for the regulation of language. Meanwhile, opposition to an academy was slowly taking shape.
In conclusion, we have seen how the 18th century was a period of great changes and developments in England and in the English language. It was influenced by the classical ideals of order, uniformity, and rationality, as well as by the social, political, and cultural events that shaped the nation. We have also seen how the 18th century’s attempts to regulate and improve the English language resulted in several characteristics, such as ascertainment, refinement, and fixation. We have also examined the views and criticisms of Dean Swift, who was a prominent figure in this period. He proposed an academy for reforming the language, but his proposal was never realized. We have also mentioned some of the historical influences on the English language, such as the Roman Christianization, the Scandinavian invasions, the Norman Conquest, etc. We have also explained the difference between speech and writing, and the different types of writing systems, such as pictograms, ideograms, logograms etc. Language is a fascinating and complex phenomenon that has no clear origin or explanation. It is constantly changing and evolving over time, reflecting our diversity and creativity as a species.